A large body of empirical literature has linked higher levels of religiousness to greater levels of health and well-being. However, much of this research has assessed religiousness through global measures (e.g., church attendance, prayer, meditation) that do not delineate specific religious forms and functions. In recent years, this picture has begun to change. Researchers have examined more specific religious expressions and identified particular types of religiousness that increase or decrease the risk of health-related problems. This paper will focus on those forms of religiousness that appear to increase the risk of poorer health. First, to place these findings in context, we will present a definition and framework for understanding religiousness. Second, we will review a growing body of research that points to several religious risk factors, including insecure religious attachment, appraisals of negative events as sacred violations and losses, and spiritual struggles (e.g., interpersonal, intrapsychic, divine). Third, we will consider potential physiological, psychological, and social variables that mediate the links between the religious risk factors and health and well-being. We will conclude by considering some of the practical implications of these findings and pointing to promising directions for future research.
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